The process must be progressive with time. Cross-linkage has been proposed as a primary cause of arteriosclerosis, a decrease in efficiency of the immune system with age, and the loss of elasticity often seen in older adult skin. Commentary: is life extension today a Faustian bargain? These people were trying to equate humans with the marvelous machines they were producing. Antiox. A., and Alawna, M. (2020). The neuroendocrine theory examines the interrelated role of the neurologic and endocrine systems over the life span of an individual (Box 2–4). Concerned with answering basic questions regarding physiologic processes that occur in all living organisms over time (Hayflick, 1996). This effect occurs even in persons with chronic limiting states such as rheumatoid arthritis. Interestingly, according to the epidemiological data, the infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 depends on the age of an adult host much less than the pathogenic potential of the virus. doi: 10.1111/ijcp.13557, Zhang, B., Zhou, X., Qiu, Y., Song, Y., Feng, F., Feng, J., et al. The immune system is a network of specialized cells, tissues, and organs that provide the body with protection against invading organisms. “Vitamin D and ageing,” in Biochemistry and Cell Biology of Ageing: Part I Biomedical Science, eds J. R. Harris and V. I. Korolchuk (Singapore: Springer Singapore), 191–220. Another hormone that has been receiving attention is dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Carnosine facilitates nitric oxide production in endothelial F-2 cells. mTOR at the nexus of nutrition, growth, ageing and disease. At the same time, Y is much more stable as reflected by mortality DT, which is about 7.5 years in Italy, Sweden and Spain and 6 years in the Netherlands. Morphol. BOX 2–3   CHANGES IN CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE FUNCTION AS A RESULT OF AGING. Age-related autoimmunity. Front. Aging 12, 10004–10021. Transl. It hypothesizes that aging is the result of use. 106:dju161. Geroscience in the age of COVID-19. The skin of a baby is soft and pliable, whereas aging skin loses much of its suppleness and elasticity. Do the benefits of exercise in indoor and outdoor environments during the COVID-19 pandemic outweigh the risks of infection? However, in the United States melatonin can already be sold as a dietary supplement, so there is little financial incentive for conducting research. (2013). This theory’s hypothesis is based on the idea that errors can occur in the transcription in any step of protein synthesis of DNA, and this eventually leads to either the aging or the actual death of a cell. These age-related changes occur independent of any external or pathologic influence. (2020). Without delving into mechanistic details, which are still not clear, it is possible to conclude from the above that the molecular targets of metformin are engaged in shifting the use of cell resources from storage, growth and reproduction to turnover, which is associated with elimination of damage, to counteracting the processes that make damage and to activating the mechanisms that repair damage. View all (2020). doi: 10.1111/bph.15137, Cuyàs, E., Verdura, S., Llorach-Parés, L., Fernández-Arroyo, S., Joven, J., Martin-Castillo, B., et al. With age, according to this theory, some proteins in the body become cross-linked. Although the two regression lines in Figure 1A are different according to the different numbers of COVID-19 death cases in the two different periods of the epidemic, they are still almost parallel. Biochemistry Moscow 61, 1443–1460. 11:989. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00989, Kellogg, C., and Equils, O. (1988) Theory of Personal Meaning and Kenyon's (190 Basic Assumptions in Theories of Human Aging. It has been observed that there is a decline, or even a cessation, in many of the components of the neuroendocrine system over the life span. Abbreviations are explained in the main text. “Death,” said Weisman, “occurs because a worn out tissue cannot forever renew itself” (Hayflick, 1996; Programmed Theory or Hayflick Limit Theory, One of the first proposed biologic theories is based on a study completed in 1961 by Hayflick and Moorehead. Sepsis in old age: review of human and animal studies. The changes that occur with aging are most apparent in the T lymphocytes, although changes also occur in the functioning capabilities of B lymphocytes. In addition, according to these theories, all organs in any one organism do not age at the same rate, and any single organ does not necessarily age at the same rate in different individuals of the same species (Warner, 2004). Cell Metab. Stochastic theory of aging Social construct theory of adhd Download Here Free HealthCareMagic App to Ask a Doctor. These errors are perpetuated and eventually lead to systems that do not function at the optimum level. In particular, the immune and blood coagulation systems are significant sources of potentially deadly internal impacts, which may be manifested as autoimmune conditions and intravascular blood coagulation events. Emerging Theories Medicine, 45, 6–10. The physiology of ageing. Endocrinol. Although changes do occur in the activity of various enzymes with aging, studies have not found that all aged cells contain altered or misspecified proteins, nor is aging automatically or necessarily accelerated if misspecified proteins or enzymes are introduced to a cell (Hayflick, 1996; Hayflick, 2004; Schneider, 1992; Weinert & Timiras, 2003). (2020). Ageing 17:2. doi: 10.1186/s12979-020-0173-8. Further degeneration of surrounding tissue eventually leads to actual death of the tissue. The reserves are obviously limited by the ability of the circulatory system, including microcirculation, to supply blood-borne energy substrates and regulatory factors to relevant cells and tissues. The term immunosenescence has been given to this age-related decrease in function. It eventually became clear just how different humans were from these machines. 9:657. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00657, da Silveira, M. P., da Silva Fagundes, K. K., Bizuti, M. R., Starck, É, Rossi, R. C., and de Resende e Silva, D. T. (2020). The two regression lines in Figure 1B that are based on COVID-19-attributed mortality data normalized against the registered COVID-19 cases (CFR) appear virtually identical. There are two aspects in the adverse effects of excess blood glucose. Genetic Timers Stochastic theories (i.e. Fasting blood glucose at admission is an independent predictor for 28-day mortality in patients with COVID-19 without previous diagnosis of diabetes: a multi-centre retrospective study. J. Amer. The mitochondrial free radical theory of aging. When these by products accumulate, they damage the cell membrane, which decreases its efficiency. Pharmacol. More research needs to be performed regarding the safety and efficacy of melatonin. Notably, the risk of COVID-19 complications and associated deaths is increased upon reduced glucose tolerance even in non-diabetic patients (Drucker, 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Marhl et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2020). (2018). (2009). An overview of in vitro evidence. Antiox. College Cardiol. In 1963, Orgel proposed the Error Theory, sometimes called the Error Catastrophe Theory. Med. Arch. The strikingly high share of elderly people among COVID-19 victims (Mueller et al., 2020) and the so-called cytokine storm implicated in such cases (Alijotas-Reig et al., 2020; Daneshkhah et al., 2020; Meftahi et al., 2020) are contributing to a severe scholarly publications tempest. Extensive experimentation on the effects of caloric restriction on rodents has demonstrated that caloric restriction increases the life span and delays the onset of age-dependent diseases (Hayflick, 1996; Health Promotion and Illness/Disability Prevention. Evidence for this theory comes from research showing that certain fish, when the water temperature is lowered, live longer than their warm water counterparts. It has been found that as a person ages, the immune system functions less effectively. Essentially, the theory reflects a belief that organs and tissues have a preprogrammed amount of available energy and wear out when the allotted energy is expended. The biologic theories can be subdivided into two main divisions: stochastic and nonstochastic. TORwards a victory over aging. Based on the conclusions of this experiment, the Hayflick Limit Theory is sometimes called the “Biologic Clock,” “Cellular Aging,” or “Genetic Theory.”. Prog. Lungs as target of COVID-19 infection: protective common molecular mechanisms of vitamin D and melatonin as a new potential synergistic treatment. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuaa092, Di Francescomarino, S., Sciartilli, A., Di Valerio, V., Di Baldassarre, A., and Gallina, S. (2009). By the end of October 2020, the Pubmed database of biomedical publications returns more than 59,000 entries upon the query “COVID”1. Like other polyphenols, it can scavenge ROS, and the products of its oxidation upon ROS scavenging can activate NRF2. Social Sci. Adv. Physical activity and cancer risk: dose-response and cancer, all sites and site-specific. It makes obvious that the stochastic mechanism of aging is incorrect. Wear and Tear Theory The pursuit of the first of the objectives proved to be largely futile (Aune et al., 2018; Jenkins et al., 2018). Do nutrients and other bioactive molecules from foods have anything to say in the treatment against COVID-19? Mol. Biol. The body does have naturally occurring antioxidants, or protective mechanisms. Extensive experimentation on the effects of caloric restriction on rodents has demonstrated that caloric restriction increases the life span and delays the onset of age-dependent diseases (Hayflick, 1996; Schneider, 1992). (2016). Immun. Acta Molec. (2020). Infection rate must depend primarily on the immunological factors, whereas death rate among those infected, on the pathophysiological factors. Nutrients 10:1821. doi: 10.3390/nu10121821. Lipofuscin, a lipid- and protein-enriched pigmented material, has been found to accumulate in older adults’ tissues, and is commonly referred to as “age spots.” As the lipofuscin’s presence increases, healthy tissue is slowly deprived of oxygen and nutrient supply. Eventually this leads to the death of the entire organism. Proponents of this theory cite microscopic signs of wear and tear that have been found in striated and smooth muscle tissue and in nerve cells. This theory was developed during the Industrial Revolution, when people were attempting to explain and make sense of events in their world. Biologic The changes that occur with aging are most apparent in the T lymphocytes, although changes also occur in the functioning capabilities of B lymphocytes. This action monopolizes the receptor sites on the membrane, thereby inhibiting the interaction with other substances that normally, Harman (1956) was the first to suggest that the administration of chemicals terminating the propagation of free radicals would extend the life span or delay the aging process. Neuroendocrine Control or Pacemaker Theory Vitamin D: nutrient, hormone, and immunomodulator. (2020). Moreover, by nitrating the SH-groups present in the viral protease, ⋅NO can block SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells (Akaberi et al., 2020). (2019). This predisposes an individual to autoimmune diseases such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. The primary, although not exclusive, contributors to these three aspects of the overall age-dependent changes in the incidence of the symptomatic COVID-19 cases are behavioral and social, immunological, and pathophysiological factors, respectively, provided the criteria of judging COVID-19 cases as symptomatic are applied equally to all ages. In 1963, Orgel proposed the Error Theory, sometimes called the Error Catastrophe Theory. Aging is an adaptation that selects in animals against disruption of homeostasis. Antioxidants also appear to have an effect on the decline of the immune system and on degenerative neurologic diseases, both of which affect morbidity and mortality (. Evidence for this theory comes from research showing that certain fish, when the water temperature is lowered, live longer than their warm water counterparts. Specific regimens of exercises accounting for the peculiarities of the current epidemiological situation are being developed and tested (Dominski and Brandt, 2020; Ravalli and Musumeci, 2020; Zhu, 2020). This aging process is similar to the process of tanning leather, which purposefully creates cross-links (Bjorkstein, 1976; Hayflick, 1996; Hayflick, 2004). Correspondingly, spermidine has been suggested as a component of therapy for COVID-19 (Gassen et al., 2020). The biologic theories can be subdivided into two main divisions: stochastic and nonstochastic. (2020). BMC Med. An open question: is it rational to inhibit the mTOR-dependent pathway as COVID-19 therapy? NAD+ deficit has been reported to occur in cells upon SARS-CoV2 infection, and, accordingly, NAR has been suggested for COVID-19 treatment (Heer et al., 2020). Med. Such data collected in Spain (Pollán et al., 2020) suggest taken together, despite all local peculiarities, that, after an increase up to about 4–5% from childhood to early adulthood, there are no regular changes in SARS-Cov-2 seroprevalence throughout the rest of lifespan. Human aging is viewed as a total process that begins at conception. Received: 16 July 2020; Accepted: 23 October 2020;Published: 03 December 2020. The Nrf2 activator (DMF) and Covid-19: is there a possible role? 5:31. doi: 10.3390/jfmk5020031, Reineke, D. C., Müller-Schweinitzer, E., Winkler, B., Kunz, D., Konerding, M. A., Grussenmeyer, T., et al. Why does COVID-19 disproportionately affect older people? In Europe melatonin is considered a neurohormone, so there would be more financial gain to determining its role in the aging process. Metformin reduces all-cause mortality and diseases of ageing independent of its effect on diabetes control: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Funct. Resveratrol can activate sirtuins (Kulkarni and Cantó, 2015; Bonkowski and Sinclair, 2016), which are involved in the repair of DNA and some forms of protein damage. Sport Health Sci. Syndrome Clin. This deficiency is most evident in people with type II diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, hypertension, and other conditions known to increase the risk of COVID-19 complications. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2020.101201 [Epub ahead of print]. Disease or not, aging is easily treatable. Nitric Oxide 103, 29–30. Social isolation as a predictor for mortality: implications for COVID-19 prognosis. Clin. STOCHASTIC THEORIES/ NON-GENETIC THEORY These theories states that aging is caused by an accumulation of insults from the environment Results of these insults is that the organisms eventually reaches a level incompatible with life 10. Mol. World J. Life expectancy was generally seen as preprogrammed, within a species-specific range; this biologic clock for humans was estimated at 110 to 120 years (Gerhard & Cristofalo, 1992; The immune system is a network of specialized cells, tissues, and organs that provide the body with protection against invading organisms. Therefore, the goal of this review is to verify, in light of some aging theories, the prevalence of AD.Methods. J. Natl. This study included an. Endothelial cells constitute the only type of resident cells that maintain their identity in all organs while being present in significant amounts there. Theories provide a springboard for discussion and research. Mutat. The next transcription would again contain an error. No single gerontologic nursing theory has been accepted by this specialty, which requires nurses to use an eclectic approach from other disciplines as the basis of clinical decision making (. Rev. Chapter 2 (2020). Indeed, hospitalization rate secondary to COVID-19 has been found to correlate inversely with the maximal exercise capacity assessed up to 5 years earlier in study participants (Brawner et al., 2020). When this theory was first proposed in 1882 by Weisman, death was seen as a result of tissues being worn out because they could not rejuvenate themselves in an endless manner (Hayflick, 1988). Oxidative stress as key player in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) infection. Based on this 1961 study, unlimited cell division was not found to occur; the immortality of individual cells was found to be more an abnormal than a normal occurrence. (2020). Acad. doi: 10.18632/aging.103636, Campbell, J. M., Bellman, S. M., Stephenson, M. D., and Lisy, K. (2017). Pharmacol. This theory attributes aging to repeated use and injury to body parts over time. (2020). 59:101037. doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2020.101037, Green, S. J. Z. Wang (Singapore: Springer Singapore), 235–254. Exper. Anisimov, V. N. (2015). In the twelfth century thoughts were centered on predetermination and an unalterable plan for life and death. Med. Aging 12, 9959–9981. 11, 607–615. Chem. Antioxidants 9:518. doi: 10.3390/antiox9060518, Meftahi, G. H., Jangravi, Z., Sahraei, H., and Bahari, Z. doi: 10.1093/jnci/dju161, Oak, M.-H., Auger, C., Belcastro, E., Park, S.-H., Lee, H.-H., and Schini-Kerth, V. B. doi: 10.7861/clinmed.2020-0252, Piskovatska, V., Strilbytska, O., Koliada, A., Vaiserman, A., and Lushchak, O. Nutrients 10:1656. doi: 10.3390/nu10111656, Semchyshyn, H. M. (2014). The two basic alternative gerontological concepts imply that either aging results from the accumulation of stochastic damage, or is programmed. Reduced response to foreign material, resulting in an increased number of infections from novel coronavirus disease COVID-19... And associated mortality in multicellular organisms of homeostasis, Sana, B., and psychologic theories aging! 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